Drivers of tuberculosis epidemics: The role of risk factors and social determinants
Introduction
The Commission on Social Determinants for Health (CSDH), set up by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2005, has attempted to revitalize the debate and actions to improve health through addressing the “causes of the causes” of ill health. The commission has developed action frameworks in several fields to address the social determinants of health including early childhood development, globalization, urbanisation, employment conditions, social exclusion, etc. A key message from the CSDH is that public health achievements will largely depend on actions outside the health care sector (CSDH, 2008).
The work of the commission builds on a long social medicine tradition, from Virchow and the public health oriented social and environmental interventions that he and others inspired from the mid-19th century onwards (Rosen, 1974), through the social model of health adopted by WHO in the late 1940s (Chisholm, 1948), to the Health for All concept in the 1970s (WHO, 1978). It has not always been easy to keep the social medicine concepts and action frameworks alive (Amrith, 2002, Rosen, 1974). Several countries have tried consistently to pursue social policies aimed to promote equity in health, some with a great deal of success (CSDH, 2008). However, in most countries, little of the social model of health advocated by WHO and others was translated into practice. As a consequence, much preventable ill health and health inequity prevails today (CSDH, 2008).
The last 2–3 decades have seen reinvigorated attempts to fight diseases with medical technologies alone. Key concepts in today's discourse on disease control include: evidence-based medicine; health systems strengthening; and community involvement. The latter two focuses mainly on the capacity to deliver medical technologies effectively. Meanwhile, social medicine has often been reduced to actions to identify risk groups that need to be targeted with medical interventions and attempts to influence individuals' risk behaviour (Porter, 2006).
The current global tuberculosis (TB) control paradigm mainly focuses on cutting transmission through early case detection and effective treatment. Medical interventions are at the core of the global strategy (Lönnroth and Raviglione, 2008, WHO, 2006). However, historically, TB has been used as a prime example of a “social disease”, the control of which requires social, economic and environmental interventions. Furthermore, the need to control TB has often been used as an argument for improving living conditions and reduce inequity (Chisholm, 1948, Rosen, 1974). After the second World War, a medically oriented TB control model emerged (Amrith, 2002). Much hope was initially placed on mass vaccination with BCG (Brimnes, 2007), hopes which were later shattered when it was demonstrated that the protective effect and epidemiological impact were limited (Rieder, 1999). When effective chemotherapy for TB became available in the end of the 1940 and beginning of 1950s, the control model switched to an almost completely curative focus. “Prevention starts with cure” became a slogan for the global role out of effective treatments. It was predicted that good coverage of effective treatment would result in a rapid decline in TB incidence (Styblo & Bumgarner, 1991). However, some recent observations have indicated that the impact of the present TB control strategy has been less than expected (WHO, 2008a). If these observations are confirmed, there may be a need to again broaden the strategy to include more preventive efforts (Farmer, 1997, Jaramillo, 1999). One avenue for improved TB prevention is the ongoing quest for better TB vaccines and better chemotherapy for preventive treatment. Another avenue leads through actions to address the social determinants of TB, as well as the more proximate risk factors (the physical and biomedical factors that directly influence the mechanisms that govern exposure to tuberculosis, risk of acquiring tuberculosis infection, and risk of progression from tuberculosis infection to active tuberculosis disease).
In order to assess the relevance and potential benefits of the latter, a review was conducted to identify key social determinants of TB and the possible causal pathways through which they operate. We also reviewed the historical and recent progress in global TB control with a view to assess the prospects of effectively controlling TB in the future with the current global strategy, and the potential to increase epidemiological impact through adding actions on social determinants and risk factors.
Section snippets
Methods
A literature review was undertaken to identify historic and recent trends in TB burden; social determinants of TB; and the most important proximate TB risk factors. We searched PubMed, the send-list “TB-Related News and Journal Items Weekly Update” (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA), and a private data-base on tuberculosis publications from the past 40 years (created by Dr Hans Rieder). The analysis was carried out by the Stop TB Department at WHO, in collaboration with
History of TB epidemiology and social change in industrialized countries
Epidemiological TB data before the 20th century is imprecise. However, some broad trends have been identified with a reasonable level of certainty. The conventional wisdom is that the incidence of TB increased in industrialized countries in the 17th to 18th centuries, peaking at different times in different places from the middle of the 1700s in Great Britain to the beginning of the 1900s in Japan. From these trends, a temporal association has been suggested between increased TB incidence and
Discussion
This review suggests that, in order to reach long-term TB control targets, the current TB control strategy needs to be complemented with efforts to address TB risk factors and social determinants. Fig. 4 presents a framework for identifying entry points for such interventions. In principle, reducing the prevalence of the proximate risk factors will reduce TB incidence. This may be achieved by tackling these risk factors directly, or the social determinants – on the individual, community,
Competing interests
The authors are staff members of the World Health Organization. The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication and they do not necessarily represent the decisions or policies of the World Health Organization. No external funding was provided for this research.
References (98)
- et al.
Markers of disease evolution: the case of tuberculosis
Journal of Theoretical Biology
(2002) - et al.
Prospects for worldwide tuberculosis control under the WHO DOTS strategy. Directly observed short-course therapy
Lancet
(1998) Social scientists and the new tuberculosis
Social Science & Medicine
(1997)- et al.
The social epidemiology of tuberculosis in South Africa: a multilevel analysis
Social Science & Medicine
(2008) - et al.
Social determinants of tuberculosis case rates in the United States
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
(2004) Encompassing prevention with treatment: the path for a long lasting control of tuberculosis
Social Science & Medicine
(1999)- et al.
Huge variation in Russian mortality rates 1984–94: artefact, alcohol, or what?
Lancet
(1997) - et al.
Politics and health outcomes
Lancet
(2006) - et al.
No health without mental health
Lancet
(2007) - et al.
Evolution of WHO policies for tuberculosis control, 1948–2001
Lancet
(2002)
The new Stop TB Strategy of WHO
Lancet
Plague of poverty? The World Health Organization, Tuberculosis and International Development 1945–1980
Prison health in Russia: the larger picture
Journal of Public Health Policy
Interventions to reduce tuberculosis mortality and transmission in low- and middle-income countries
Bulletin of WHO
Vikings against tuberculosis: The International Tuberculosis Campaign in India, 1948–1951
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
Tuberculosis risk factors in adults in King County, Washington, 1998 through 1990
American Journal of Public Health
The relationship between malnutrition and tuberculosis: evidence from studies in humans and experimental animals
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
The effect of tuberculosis control in China
Lancet
Social medicine
Scientific American
Pollution and tuberculosis: outdoor sources
PLoS Medicine
Achieving health equity: From root causes to fair outcomes – Commission on Social Determinants of Health interim statement
HIV infection and silicosis: the impact of two potent risk factors on the incidence of mycobacterial disease in South African miners
AIDS
The growing burden of tuberculosis: global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic
Archives of Internal Medicine
Closing the gap in a generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health
The value of tuberculin test in man, with special reference to the intracutaneous test
Medical Research Council Special Series
Historical declines in tuberculosis in England and Wales: improving social conditions or natural selection?
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
Tuberculosis
The decline of tuberculosis epidemics under chemotherapy: a case study in Morocco
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
Public health nihilism vs. pragmatism: history, politics, and the control of tuberculosis
American Journal of Public Health
The state of food insecurity in the world 2006
Tuberculosis in New York City—turning the tide
The New England Journal of Medicine
Tuberculosis, AIDS, and death among substance abusers on welfare in New York City
The New England Journal of Medicine
Knowledge network on health systems – WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Final report
Progress towards tuberculosis elimination in Cuba
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
The McKeown debate: time for burial
International Journal of Epidemiology
Tuberculosis in the poverty alleviation agenda
Changing risks in tuberculosis
American Journal of Epidemiology
HIV-1 and HIV-2 prevalence and associated risk factors among postnatal women in Harare, Zimbabwe
Epidemiology and Infection
Tuberculosis epidemiology in six provinces of Vietnam after the introduction of the DOTS strategy
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
The social determinants of diabetes and its impact on human well-being
A WHO/The Union monograph on TB and tobacco control – Joining efforts to control two related global epidemics
Ten largest racial and ethnic health disparities in the United States based on healthy people 2010 objectives
American Journal of Epidemiology
Our cities, our health, our future: Acting on social determinants for health equity in urban settings. Report to the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health from the Knowledge Network on urban settings
Towards health-equitable globalization: Rights, regulation and redistribution. Final report to the Commission on Social Determinants of Health from the Globalization Knowledge Network
Economic benefit of tuberculosis control
From exposure to disease: the role of environmental factors in susceptibility to and development of tuberculosis
Epidemiologic Review
Tobacco smoke, indoor air pollution and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis
PLoS Medicine
Cited by (713)
Spatial distribution and determinants of tuberculosis incidence in Mozambique: A nationwide Bayesian disease mapping study
2024, Spatial and Spatio-temporal EpidemiologyCorrelation of polymorphism in Toll-Like Receptor (TLR1 and TLR2) genes with susceptibility of pulmonary tuberculosis in Doda region of India
2024, Indian Journal of TuberculosisTreatment seeking dilemma for tuberculosis as timed strategic prisoner's dilemma game
2023, Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its ApplicationsAssociations between type 1 diabetes and pulmonary tuberculosis: a bidirectional mendelian randomization study
2024, Diabetology and Metabolic Syndrome