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The smoker with interstitial lung disease and interventions for successful smoking cessation
O fumador com doença pulmonar intersticial e intervenções para deixar de fumar com sucesso
a Centro per la Prevenzione e Cura del Tabagismo (CPCT), Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria “Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele”, Università di Catania, Catania, Italy
b Institute of Internal Medicine, G. Rodolico Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria “Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele”, Università di Catania, Catania, Italy
c C.T.A. Villa Chiara, Mascalucia, Catania, Italy
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Villa Chiara, Mascalucia, Catania, Italy" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "pt" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "O fumador com doença pulmonar intersticial e intervenções para deixar de fumar com sucesso" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 3158 "Ancho" => 2324 "Tamanyo" => 706223 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A guide for assisting the smoker. The first step in treating tobacco use and dependence is to identify tobacco users. Asking systematically whether your patients smoke at every visit is imperative (ASK). All smokers should be advised to quit. This advice should be clearly stated and specifically adapted in relation to the patient's problems (ADVISE). The willingness of smokers to make a quit attempt at this time should be assessed (ASSESS). If the patient is ready to quit, health care providers should be prepared to offer assistance. This entails working together with the patient to set a sensible plan with a commitment to a quit date and to frequent follow-up visits. Alternatively, referring the patient to a tobacco intervention resource (eg, a smoking cessation quit line or health educator) that would deliver additional treatment to the patient might be contemplated (ASSIST). All patients who receive a tobacco dependence intervention should be regularly assessed for abstinence, beginning within the first week after the quit date. Abstinent patients should have their quitting success acknowledged.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cigarette smoke contains a mixture of over 5000 chemicals many of which harm the human body causing a broad range of diseases. With approximately 5 million tobacco-related deaths annually, smoking is the leading cause of preventable premature mortality in the world.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Death is mainly caused by lung cancer, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and stroke.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2,3</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tobacco is one of the most main causes of respiratory diseases.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Smoking is also recognized as a risk factor for interstitial lung disease (ILD). The relationship of smoking with each of these entities has generally been established on the basis of epidemiologic evidence.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> The relationship between cigarette smoking and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH), respiratory bronchiolitis (RB), respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease (RB-ILD), and desquamative interstitial pneumonia (DIP) is well described.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6–9</span></a> Data suggesting an association between cigarette smoking and acute eosinophilic pneumonia (AEP) are also emerging, whereas the relationship between smoking and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and nonspecific interstitial pneumonia remains uncertain.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10,11</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The risk of lung cancer, heart disease, chronic lung disease, stroke, and other cancers diminishes rapidly after quitting.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Smoking cessation maybe the most important and cost-effective therapeutic option<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> for smoker with smoking-related ILDs. Smoking cessation should be strongly encouraged in these patients, and they should be offered effective treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">All physicians should strongly advise every patient who smokes to quit because evidence shows that physician advice to quit smoking increases abstinence rates.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Evidence-based recommendations indicate that smoking cessation programs are useful in helping smokers to quit,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> but the powerful addictive qualities of nicotine create a huge hurdle, even for those with a strong desire to quit. Once established, smoking is a very difficult addiction to break.</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The majority of smokers persist in tobacco use for many years and typically cycle through multiple periods of remission and relapse. It has been shown that approximately 80% of smokers who attempt to quit on their own relapse within the first month of abstinence and only about 3–5% remain abstinent at 6 months.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> This reflects the chronic relapsing nature of tobacco dependence. Treatment for smoking cessation includes various methods, from simple medical advice to pharmacotherapy. Evidence-based recommendations indicate that although counseling and medication on their own are helpful for treating tobacco dependence when used in combination they are more effective.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To help their patients quit smoking, clinicians can use the “five A's” approach<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>): <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ask</span> patients about smoking, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">advise</span> all smokers to quit, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">assess</span> willingness to make a quit attempt, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">assist</span> those who want to quit, and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">arrange</span> follow-up visits with those trying to quit. Each intervention can be completed in less than 3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min and has been associated with a cessation prevalence of 5–8%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is a strong dose–response relation between the session length of person-to-person contact and successful treatment outcomes. Intensive interventions are more effective than less intensive interventions and should be used whenever possible. Person-to-person treatment delivered for four or more sessions appears especially effective in increasing abstinence rates.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">All patients with ILD should be routinely <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">asked</span> about their smoking status. This advice should be clearly stated and personalized. Clinicians treating smokers with ILD have an ideal “teachable moment” in that they are treating a disease that may have been caused or exacerbated by smoking and that can be ameliorated by quitting. It is important tell the patient that his disease is caused by or related to smoking and that can be ameliorated by quitting.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After giving this advice, clinicians should <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">assess</span> whether smokers desire to quit at the present time.</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For those smokers ambivalent about quitting, or less motivated, motivational interviewing appear to be effective in increasing a patient's likelihood of attempting to quit. Therefore, clinicians should use these techniques to encourage smokers who are ambivalent about quitting, or less motivated, to consider making an attempt.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinicians should <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">assist</span> patients who want to quit. All clinicians and clinicians-in-training should be trained in effective strategies to assist tobacco users willing to make a quit attempt and to motivate those unwilling to quit.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinician should work together with the patient to set a date to quit and should provide the patient with practical advice about how to quit and self-help materials. Clinicians should determine whether the patient is likely to require adjunctive help and whether the patient is a candidate for pharmacotherapy. Pharmacotherapy should be considered for all patients motivated to make a quit attempt, except in the presence of specific contraindications. The choice may take into account previous patient experience and preferences. Clinicians should also present other treatment options to their patients who want to quit. In particular, patients should be made aware of community cessation resources available.</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinicians should <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">arrange</span> for a follow-up visit to discuss smoking cessation within two weeks of the chosen date to quit.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Scheduling follow-up visits (or making follow-up telephone calls) improves cessation success. More intense interventions yield better outcomes. Outcomes are influenced by a host of structural factors, including session length, session frequency, total number of sessions, and number and types of treatment modalities.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Smokers differ in their motivation to quit smoking, and these differences are thought to affect treatment prognosis. A theoretical structure for assessing these differences is offered by the model advanced by Prochaska and Di Clemente. Briefly, the model proposes that smokers go through a series of stages (not necessarily linearly) on the way to achieving prolonged abstinence from smoking (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>): not thinking seriously about quitting in the next six months, thinking seriously about quitting in the next six months, planning to quit in the next month, actually trying to quit, and trying to remain abstinent. If a relapse occurs, smokers should return to an earlier stage in the model.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Helping smokers to overcome their addiction involves prompting quit attempts by offering help to all smokers without necessarily asking whether they are interested in quitting<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> and clinicians should use the motivational interviewing on cessation to encourage all smokers to quit.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once established, cigarette smoking is a very difficult addiction to break. Smokers trying to quit have to simultaneously cope with psychological and pharmacological aspects of tobacco dependence. The pharmacological effects of nicotine play a crucial role in tobacco addiction and therefore pharmacotherapy is important to address this component of tobacco dependence in order to improve success rates. There is little doubt that currently marketed smoking cessation products (such as NRT, buproprion and varenicline) increase the chance of committed smokers stopping smoking, particularly when combined with counseling programs. This is because psychological therapies and counseling help smokers to cope with psychological aspects associated with tobacco dependence.</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unfortunately, many smokers relapse while receiving treatment for tobacco dependence. We acknowledge that this reflects the chronic relapsing nature of tobacco dependence and is not the fault of the physician, nor a failure of their patients, but more effective smoking cessation interventions are clearly needed.</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">R.C. and P.C. have no conflicts of interest or declarations towards the contents of this paper. R.P. has received lecture fees from Pfizer and GSK; he has also served as a consultant to Pfizer.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest" ] 1 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "multimedia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 3158 "Ancho" => 2324 "Tamanyo" => 706223 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A guide for assisting the smoker. The first step in treating tobacco use and dependence is to identify tobacco users. Asking systematically whether your patients smoke at every visit is imperative (ASK). All smokers should be advised to quit. This advice should be clearly stated and specifically adapted in relation to the patient's problems (ADVISE). The willingness of smokers to make a quit attempt at this time should be assessed (ASSESS). If the patient is ready to quit, health care providers should be prepared to offer assistance. This entails working together with the patient to set a sensible plan with a commitment to a quit date and to frequent follow-up visits. Alternatively, referring the patient to a tobacco intervention resource (eg, a smoking cessation quit line or health educator) that would deliver additional treatment to the patient might be contemplated (ASSIST). All patients who receive a tobacco dependence intervention should be regularly assessed for abstinence, beginning within the first week after the quit date. Abstinent patients should have their quitting success acknowledged.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:17 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Tobacco or health: a global status report" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => "World Health Organization" ] ] ] ] ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "Libro" => array:3 [ "fecha" => "1997" "editorial" => "World Health Organization" "editorialLocalizacion" => "Geneva" ] ] ] ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0010" "etiqueta" => "2" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years’ observations on male British doctors" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:4 [ 0 => "R. 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| Year/Month | Html | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2024 November | 7 | 10 | 17 |
| 2024 October | 50 | 35 | 85 |
| 2024 September | 76 | 29 | 105 |
| 2024 August | 65 | 51 | 116 |
| 2024 July | 62 | 36 | 98 |
| 2024 June | 28 | 20 | 48 |
| 2024 May | 53 | 38 | 91 |
| 2024 April | 53 | 22 | 75 |
| 2024 March | 52 | 23 | 75 |
| 2024 February | 51 | 20 | 71 |
| 2024 January | 44 | 21 | 65 |
| 2023 December | 33 | 29 | 62 |
| 2023 November | 39 | 30 | 69 |
| 2023 October | 48 | 44 | 92 |
| 2023 September | 60 | 31 | 91 |
| 2023 August | 47 | 22 | 69 |
| 2023 July | 18 | 23 | 41 |
| 2023 June | 29 | 20 | 49 |
| 2023 May | 43 | 18 | 61 |
| 2023 April | 36 | 18 | 54 |
| 2023 March | 79 | 22 | 101 |
| 2023 February | 49 | 15 | 64 |
| 2023 January | 27 | 21 | 48 |
| 2022 December | 47 | 19 | 66 |
| 2022 November | 74 | 34 | 108 |
| 2022 October | 47 | 34 | 81 |
| 2022 September | 36 | 33 | 69 |
| 2022 August | 54 | 32 | 86 |
| 2022 July | 49 | 44 | 93 |
| 2022 June | 43 | 29 | 72 |
| 2022 May | 51 | 40 | 91 |
| 2022 April | 45 | 44 | 89 |
| 2022 March | 56 | 52 | 108 |
| 2022 February | 76 | 34 | 110 |
| 2022 January | 62 | 37 | 99 |
| 2021 December | 26 | 39 | 65 |
| 2021 November | 33 | 38 | 71 |
| 2021 October | 43 | 40 | 83 |
| 2021 September | 47 | 36 | 83 |
| 2021 August | 54 | 31 | 85 |
| 2021 July | 44 | 14 | 58 |
| 2021 June | 37 | 26 | 63 |
| 2021 May | 58 | 35 | 93 |
| 2021 April | 129 | 81 | 210 |
| 2021 March | 144 | 25 | 169 |
| 2021 February | 88 | 14 | 102 |
| 2021 January | 81 | 20 | 101 |
| 2020 December | 78 | 14 | 92 |
| 2020 November | 77 | 17 | 94 |
| 2020 October | 67 | 21 | 88 |
| 2020 September | 76 | 22 | 98 |
| 2020 August | 88 | 26 | 114 |
| 2020 July | 99 | 26 | 125 |
| 2020 June | 84 | 18 | 102 |
| 2020 May | 98 | 23 | 121 |
| 2020 April | 81 | 11 | 92 |
| 2020 March | 71 | 20 | 91 |
| 2020 February | 86 | 22 | 108 |
| 2020 January | 84 | 14 | 98 |
| 2019 December | 92 | 21 | 113 |
| 2019 November | 100 | 21 | 121 |
| 2019 October | 89 | 13 | 102 |
| 2019 September | 85 | 25 | 110 |
| 2019 August | 161 | 22 | 183 |
| 2019 July | 176 | 26 | 202 |
| 2019 June | 211 | 16 | 227 |
| 2019 May | 217 | 20 | 237 |
| 2019 April | 194 | 27 | 221 |
| 2019 March | 262 | 12 | 274 |
| 2019 February | 249 | 13 | 262 |
| 2019 January | 230 | 14 | 244 |
| 2018 December | 134 | 6 | 140 |
| 2018 November | 63 | 4 | 67 |
| 2018 October | 95 | 6 | 101 |
| 2018 September | 40 | 10 | 50 |
| 2018 August | 45 | 26 | 71 |
| 2018 July | 64 | 28 | 92 |
| 2018 June | 63 | 13 | 76 |
| 2018 May | 117 | 17 | 134 |
| 2018 April | 94 | 13 | 107 |
| 2018 March | 129 | 25 | 154 |
| 2018 February | 105 | 5 | 110 |
| 2018 January | 92 | 17 | 109 |
| 2017 December | 92 | 13 | 105 |
| 2017 November | 63 | 22 | 85 |
| 2017 October | 45 | 20 | 65 |
| 2017 September | 53 | 22 | 75 |
| 2017 August | 50 | 12 | 62 |
| 2017 July | 34 | 14 | 48 |
| 2017 June | 50 | 30 | 80 |
| 2017 May | 84 | 31 | 115 |
| 2017 April | 39 | 17 | 56 |
| 2017 March | 47 | 6 | 53 |
| 2017 February | 39 | 9 | 48 |
| 2017 January | 19 | 5 | 24 |
| 2016 December | 25 | 19 | 44 |
| 2016 November | 22 | 13 | 35 |
| 2016 October | 30 | 7 | 37 |
| 2016 September | 20 | 6 | 26 |
| 2016 August | 22 | 6 | 28 |
| 2016 July | 4 | 6 | 10 |
| 2016 April | 26 | 2 | 28 |
| 2016 March | 38 | 14 | 52 |
| 2016 February | 50 | 10 | 60 |
| 2016 January | 35 | 15 | 50 |
| 2015 December | 54 | 12 | 66 |
| 2015 November | 34 | 11 | 45 |
| 2015 October | 45 | 10 | 55 |
| 2015 September | 42 | 16 | 58 |
| 2015 August | 47 | 7 | 54 |
| 2015 July | 30 | 12 | 42 |
| 2015 June | 35 | 5 | 40 |
| 2015 May | 60 | 10 | 70 |
| 2015 April | 34 | 8 | 42 |
| 2015 March | 35 | 7 | 42 |
| 2015 February | 24 | 5 | 29 |
| 2015 January | 47 | 10 | 57 |
| 2014 December | 79 | 8 | 87 |
| 2014 November | 30 | 6 | 36 |
| 2014 October | 40 | 8 | 48 |
| 2014 September | 42 | 18 | 60 |
| 2014 August | 42 | 6 | 48 |
| 2014 July | 39 | 11 | 50 |
| 2014 June | 42 | 12 | 54 |
| 2014 May | 52 | 13 | 65 |
| 2014 April | 49 | 12 | 61 |
| 2014 March | 47 | 13 | 60 |
| 2014 February | 54 | 18 | 72 |
| 2014 January | 56 | 11 | 67 |
| 2013 December | 35 | 15 | 50 |
| 2013 November | 47 | 14 | 61 |
| 2013 October | 55 | 12 | 67 |
| 2013 September | 41 | 16 | 57 |
| 2013 August | 59 | 17 | 76 |
| 2013 July | 66 | 21 | 87 |
| 2013 June | 30 | 17 | 47 |
| 2013 May | 40 | 17 | 57 |
| 2013 April | 61 | 28 | 89 |
| 2013 March | 50 | 17 | 67 |
| 2013 February | 59 | 37 | 96 |
| 2013 January | 75 | 34 | 109 |
| 2012 December | 67 | 36 | 103 |
| 2012 November | 84 | 37 | 121 |
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