Journal Information
Vol. 13. Issue 3.
Pages 419-486 (May - June 2007)
Share
Share
Download PDF
More article options
Vol. 13. Issue 3.
Pages 419-486 (May - June 2007)
Full text access
Consensus document on nosocomial pneumonia
Documento de Consenso sobre pneumonia nosocomial
Visits
1322
Filipe Froes1, José Artur Paiva2, Piedade Amaro1, João Pedro Baptista2, Gabriela Brum1, Henrique Bento2, Paula Duarte1, Conceição Sousa Dias2, Carlos Glória1, Helena Estrada2, Luís Telo1, Eduardo Silva2, João Gonçalves Pereira1, Germano do Carmo2
1 Sociedade Portuguesa de Pneumologia / Portuguese Society of Pulmonology
2 Sociedade Portuguesa de Cuidados Intensivos / Portuguese Intensive Care Society
This item has received
Article information
Full text is only aviable in PDF
Bibliography/Bibliografia
[1.]
American Thoracic Society Documents.
Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Hospital-acquired, Ventilator-associated, and Healthcare-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171 (2005), pp. 388-416
[2.]
M.J. Richards, J.R. Edwards, D.H. Culver, R.P. Gaynes.
Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System.
Crit Care Med, 27 (1999), pp. 887-892
[3.]
G. Campbell, M. Niederman, W. Broughton, D. Craven, A. Fein, M. Fink, et al.
Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults: diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy, and preventive strategies. A consensus statement, American Thoracic Society.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 153 (1996), pp. 1711-1725
[4.]
J. Rello, J.A. Paiva, J. Baraibar, F. Barcenilla, M. Bodi, D. Castander, H. Correa, E. Diaz, J. Garnacho, M. Llorio, M. Rios, A. Rodriguez, Solé-Violan.
International Conference for the Development of Consensus on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia.
Chest, 120 (2001), pp. 955-970
[5.]
R. Jordà, A. Torres, F.J. Ariza, F. Álvarez-Lerma, F. Barcenilla, et al.
Recomendaciones para el tratamiento de la pneumonia intrahospitalaria grave.
Arch Bronconeumol, 40 (2004), pp. 518-533
[6.]
J. Chastre, J.Y. Fagon.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 165 (2002), pp. 867-903
[7.]
A. Torres, R. Aznar, J.M. Gatell, et al.
Incidence, risk, and prognosis factores of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 142 (1990), pp. 523-528
[8.]
J. Rello, D.A. Ollendorf, G. Oster, V. Montserrat, L. Bellm, R. Redman, M.R. Kollef.
Epidemiology and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large US database.
Chest, 122 (2002), pp. 2115-2121
[9.]
D.K. Heyland, D.J. Cook, L. Griffith, et al.
The attributable morbidity and mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the critical ill patient.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 159 (1999), pp. 1249-1256
[10.]
A.A. El Solh, P. Sikka, F. Ramadan, J. Davies.
Etiology of severe pneumonia in the very elderly.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 163 (2001), pp. 645-651
[11.]
A.A. El Solh, A.T. Aquilina, R.S. Dhillon, F. Ramadan, P. Nowak, J. Davies.
Impact of invasive strategy on management of antimicrobial treatment failure in institutionalized older people with severe pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 166 (2002), pp. 1038-1043
[12.]
N. Fabregas, S. Ewig, A. Torres, et al.
Clinical diagnosis of ventilator associated pneumonia revisited: comparative evaluation usind immediate post moprtem biopsies.
Thorax, 54 (1999), pp. 867-873
[13.]
C. Delclaux, E. Roupie, F. Blot, L. Brochard, F. Lemaire, C. Brun-Buisson.
Lower respiratory tract colonization and infection during severe acute respiratory distress syndrome: incidence and diagnosis.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156 (1997), pp. 1092-1098
[14.]
C.M. Luna, P. Vujacich, M.S. Niederman, C. Vay, C. Gherardi, J. Matera, E.C. Jolly.
Impact of BAL data on the therapy and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest, 111 (1997), pp. 676-685
[15.]
M. Iregui, S. Ward, G. Sherman, V.J. Fraser, M.H. Kollef.
Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest, 122 (2002), pp. 262-268
[16.]
F. Alvarez-Lerma.
Modification of empiric antibiotic treatment in patients with pneumonia acquired in the intensive care unit. ICU-Acquired Pneumonia Study Group.
Intensive Care Med, 22 (1996), pp. 387-394
[17.]
J.Y. Fagon, J. Chastre, M. Wolff, C. Gervais, S. Parer-Aubas, F. Stephan, T. Similowski, A. Mercat, J.L. Diehl, J.P. Sollet, A. Tenaillon.
Invasive and noninvasive strategies for management of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. A randomized trial.
Ann Intern Med, 132 (2000), pp. 621-630
[18.]
J. Chastre, M. Wolff, J.Y. Fagon, S. Chevret, F. Thomas, D. Wermert, E. Clementi, J. Gonzalez, D. Jusserand, P. Asfar, D. Perrin, F. Fieux, S. Aubas.
PneumA Trial Group: Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial.
JAMA, 290 (2003), pp. 2588-2598
[19.]
Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Marshall J, Heule M, Guslits B, Lang J, Jaeschke R. The clinical utility of invasive diagnostic techniques in the setting of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Chest. 1999115:1076-84.
[20.]
S.H. Kirtland, D.E. Corley, R.H. Winterbauer, S.C. Springmeyer, K.R. Casey, N.B. Hampson, D.F. Dreis.
The diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a comparison of histologic, microbiologic, and clinical criteria.
Chest, 112 (1997), pp. 445-457
[21.]
D. Wermert, C.H. Marquette, M.C. Copin, F. Wallet, A. Fraticelli, P. Ramon, A.B. Tonnel.
Influence of pulmonary bacteriology and histology on the yield of diagnostic procedures in ventilator-acquired pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 158 (1998), pp. 139-147
[22.]
J.J. Rouby, E. Martin De Lassale, P. Poete, M.H. Nicolas, L. Bodin, V. Jarlier, Y. Le Charpentier, J. Grosset, P. Viars.
Nosocomial bronchopneumonia in the critically ill. Histologic and bacteriologic aspects.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 146 (1992), pp. 1059-1066
[23.]
J. Pugin, R. Auckenthaler, N. Mili, et al.
Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia by bacteriologic analysis of bronchoscopic and non-bronchoscopic “blind” bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 143 (1991), pp. 1121-1129
[24.]
N. Singh, P. Rogers, C.W. Atwood, et al.
Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit: a proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162 (2000), pp. 505-511
[25.]
C.M. Luna, D. Blanzaco, M.S. Niederman, et al.
Resolution of ventilator-associated pneumonia: Prospective evaluation of the clinical pulmonary infection score as an early clinical predictor of outcome.
Crit Care Med, 31 (2003), pp. 676-682
[26.]
M. Fartoukh, B. Maître, S. Honoré, et al.
Diagnosing pneumonia during mechanical ventilation. The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score Revisited.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 168 (2003), pp. 173-179
[27.]
L. Papazian, P. Thomas, L. Garbe, et al.
Bronchoscopic or blind sampling techniques for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Resp Crit Care Med, 152 (1995), pp. 1982-1991
[28.]
C. Franklin, et al.
Reduced mortality of pneumococcal bacteremia after early intensive care.
J Intensive Care, 6 (1994), pp. 302-307
[29.]
M. Niederman.
Gram-negative colonization of the respiratory tract: pathogenesis and clinical consequences.
Semin Respir Infect, 5 (1990), pp. 173-184
[30.]
J. Hayon, C. Figliolini, A. Combes, J.L. Trouillet, N. Kassis, M.C. Dombret, C. Gibert, J. Chastre.
Role of serial routine microbiologic culture results in the initial management of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 165 (2002), pp. 41-46
[31.]
ERS Task Force.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Eur Respir J, 17 (2001), pp. 1034-1045
[32.]
C. Luna, A. Videla, J. Mattera, et al.
Blood cultures have limited value in predicting severity of illness and as a diagnostic tool in ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest, 116 (1999), pp. 1075-1084
[33.]
O.C. Tablan, et al.
Guidelines for preventing health-careassociated pneumonia: recomendations of the CDC and the Health-care Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.
MMWR Recomm Rep, 53 (2004), pp. 10-13
[34.]
M.H. Kollef, G. Sherman, S. Ward, et al.
Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients.
Chest, 115 (1999), pp. 462-474
[35.]
M. Kollef, S. Ward.
The Influence of Mini-BAL Cultures on Patient Outcomes. Implications for the Antibiotic Management of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia.
Chest, 113 (1998), pp. 412-420
[36.]
M. Weinstein, M. Towns, S. Quartey, et al.
The Clinical Significance of Positive Blood Cultures in the 1990s: A Prospective Comprehensive Evaluation of the Microbiology, Epidemiology, and Outcome of Bacteremia and Fungemia in Adults.
CID, 24 (1997), pp. 584-602
[37.]
P.D. Paepe, F.M. Belpaire, W.A. Buylaert.
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations when treating patients with sepsis and septic shock.
Clin Pharmacokinet, 41 (2002), pp. 1135-1151
[38.]
J.G. Pereira.
Antibioterapia na pneumonia: A emergência das resistências.
Revista de Infecções Respiratórias, 1 (2005), pp. 4-12
[39.]
E.H. Ibrahim, S. Ward, G. Sherman, R. Schaiff, V.J. Fraser, M.H. Kollef.
Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator associated pneumonia.
Crit Care Med, 29 (2001), pp. 1109-1115
[40.]
B. Sieger, S.J. Berman, R. Geckler, S. Farkas.
Empiric treatment of hospital-acquired lower respiratory tract infections with meropenem or ceftazidime with tobramycin: A randomized study.
Crit Care Med, 25 (1997), pp. 1663-1670
[41.]
J. Rello, L. Vidaur, A. Sandiumenge, et al.
De-escalation therapy in ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Crit Care Med, 32 (2004), pp. 2183-2190
[42.]
S.T. Micek, S. Ward, V.J. Fraser, M.H. Kollef.
A randomized controlled trial of an antibiotic discontinuation policy for clinically suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest, 125 (2004), pp. 1791-1799
[43.]
M.R. Jacobs.
Optimisation of antimicrobial therapy using pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters.
Clin Microbiol Infect, 7 (2001), pp. 589-596
[44.]
D. Andes, J. Anon, M.R. Jacobs, W.A. Craig.
Application of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics to antimicrobial therapy of respiratory tract infections.
Clin Lab Med, 24 (2004), pp. 477-502
[45.]
W.A. Craig.
Basic pharmacodynamics of antibacterials with clinical applications to the use of b-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid.
Infect Dis Clin N Am, 17 (2003), pp. 479-501
[46.]
C.M. Isada, B.L. Kasten, M.P. Goldman, L.D. Gray, J.A. Aberg.
Infectious diseases handbook.
5th, Lexi-Comp, (2003),
[47.]
J.G. Pereira.
Antibióticos em perfusão contínua.
Revista Portuguesa de Medicina Intensiva, 13 (2004), pp. 15-19
[48.]
K. Leder, J.D. Turnidge, T.M. Korman, M.L. Grayson.
The clinical efficacy of continuous-infusion flucloxacillin in serious staphylococcal sepsis.
Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 43 (1999), pp. 113-118
[49.]
E.M. Grant, J.L. Kuti, D.P. Nicolau, C. Nightingale, R. Quintiliani.
Clinical efficacy and pharmacoeconomics of a continuous-infusion piperacillin-tazobactam program in a large community teaching hospital.
Pharmacotherapy, 22 (2002), pp. 471-483
[50.]
J. Lipmana, C.D. Gomersallb, T. Ginc, G.M. Joyntb, R.J. Youngb.
Continuous infusion ceftazidime in intensive care: a randomized controlled trial.
J Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 43 (1999), pp. 309-311
[51.]
G.M. Joynt, J. Lipman, C.D. Gomersall, R.J. Young, E.L.Y. Wong, T. Gin.
The pharmacokinetics of once-daily dosing of ceftriaxone in critically ill patients.
J Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 47 (2001), pp. 421-429
[52.]
J. Lipman, S.C. Wallis, C. Rickard.
Low plasma cefepime levels in critically ill septic patients: Pharmacokinetic modeling indicates improved troughs with revised dosing.
Antimicrob Agent Chemother, 43 (1999), pp. 2559-2561
[53.]
J. Li, R. Nation, J. Turnidge, R. Milne, et al.
Colistin: the reemerging antibiotic for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections.
Lancet Infect Dis, 6 (2006), pp. 589-601
[54.]
J. Turnidge.
Pharmacodynamics and dosing of aminoglycosides.
Infect Dis Clin N Am, 17 (2003), pp. 503-528
[55.]
E.D. Hermsen, C.J. Sullivan, J.C. Rotschafer.
Polymyxins: Pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and clinical applications.
Infect Dis Clin N Am, 17 (2003), pp. 54562
[56.]
J. Li, J. Turnidge, R. Milne, R.L. Nation, K. Coulthard.
In vitro pharmacodynamic properties of Colistin and Colistin Methanesulfonate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis.
Antimicrob Agent Chemother, 45 (2001), pp. 781-785
[57.]
D.L. Wyncoll, R. Bowry, L.J. Giles.
Antibiotics in continuous infusion: Time for re-evaluation?.
Year Book of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine, pp. 398-406
[58.]
J. Rello, V. Ausina, et al.
Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest, 104 (1993), pp. 1230-1235
[59.]
J.L. Trouillet, J. Chastre, A. Vuagnat, et al.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 157 (1998), pp. 531-539
[60.]
J.Y. Fagon, J. Chastre, Y. Domart, et al.
Nosocomial pneumonia in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation: prospective analysis of 52 episodes with use of a protected specimen brush and quantitative culture techniques.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 139 (1989), pp. 877-884
[61.]
J. Rello, E. Quintana, V. Ausina, et al.
Incidence, etiology and outcome of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients.
Chest, 100 (1991), pp. 439-444
[62.]
S.C. Brewer, R.G. Wunderink, C.B. Jones, et al.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Chest, 109 (1996), pp. 1019-1029
[63.]
O. Leroy, S. Jaffré, T. d’Ecrivan, et al.
Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia. Risk factors for antimicrobial-resistant causative pathogens in critically ill patients.
Chest, 123 (2003), pp. 2034-2042
[64.]
R.T. Sadikot, T.S. Blackwell, J.W. Christman, et al.
Pathogenhost interaction in Pseudominas aeruginosa Pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171 (2005), pp. 1209-1223
[65.]
I. Chatzinikoloau, D. Abi-Said, G.P. Bodey, et al.
Recent experience with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in patients with cancer: retrospective analysis of 24 episodes.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 501-509
[66.]
J. Chastre, J.L. Trouillet.
Problem pathogens Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter.
Semin Respire Infect, 15 (2000), pp. 287-298
[67.]
F. Vidal, J. Mens, J.A. Martinez, et al.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in patients infected with HIV-1.
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 18 (1999), pp. 473-477
[68.]
J. Rello, V. Ausina, M. Ricart, et al.
Risk factors for infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Intensive Care Med, 20 (1994), pp. 193-198
[69.]
N. Sopena, M. Sabria, M.L. Pedro-Botet, et al.
Prospective study of community-acquired pneumonia of bacterial etiology in adults.
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 18 (1999), pp. 852-858
[70.]
F. Aranciba, T.T. Bauer, S. Ewig, et al.
Community-acquired pneumonia due to gram-negative bacteria and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Arch Intern Med, 162 (2002), pp. 1849-1858
[71.]
K.H. Groenewegen, et al.
Bacterial infections in patients requiring admission for an acute exacerbation of COPD; a 1-year prospective study.
Respir Med, 97 (2003), pp. 770-777
[72.]
S. Nseir, C. Pompeo, S. Soubrier, et al.
Impact of Ventilator- associated pneumonia on outcome in patients with COPD.
Chest, 128 (2005), pp. 1650-1656
[73.]
E.H. Ibrahim, S. Ward, G. Sherman, et al.
A comparative analysis of patients with early-onset versus late-onset nosocomial pneumonia in the ICU setting.
Chest, 117 (2000), pp. 1434-1442
[74.]
J. Rello, M. Sa-Borges, H. Correa, S.R. Leal, J. Baraibar.
Variations in etiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia across four treatment sites: implications for antimicrobial prescribing practices.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 160 (1999), pp. 608-613
[75.]
E.H. Ibrahim, G. Sherman, S. Ward, et al.
The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting.
Chest, 118 (2000), pp. 146-155
[76.]
J. Rello, A. Torres, M. Ricart, et al.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia by Staphylococcus aureus. Comparison of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive episodes.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 150 (1994), pp. 1545-1549
[77.]
J. Rello, E. Quintana, V. Ausina, et al.
Risk factors for Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia in critically ill patients.
Am Rev Respir Dis, 142 (1990), pp. 1320-1324
[78.]
J.S. Solomkin, H.S. Bjornson, M. Cainzos, et al.
A consensus statement on empiric therapy for suspected grampositive infections in surgical patients.
Am J Surgery, 187 (2004), pp. 134-145
[79.]
A. Vuagnat, R. Stern, A. Lotthe, et al.
High dose vancomycin for osteomyelitis: continuous vs. intermittent infusion.
Journal Clinical Pharmacy Therapeutics, 29 (2004), pp. 351-357
[80.]
J.M. Pereira, A. Azevedo, J.A. Paiva.
Continuous infusion of vancomyc is it a step forward in vancomycin therapy?.
Intensive Care Med, 31 (2005), pp. S222
[81.]
M. Wysocki, F. Delatour, F. Faurisson, A. Rauss, et al.
Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in severe staphylococcal infections: prospective multicenter randomized study.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45 (2001), pp. 2460-2467
[82.]
J. Rello, J. Sole-Violan, M. Sa-Borges, J. Garnacho-Montero, et al.
Pneumonia caused by oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with glycopeptides.
Crit Care Med, 33 (2005), pp. 1983-1987
[83.]
J. Garnacho-Montero, C. Ortiz-Leyva, F.J. Jiménez-Jiménez, et al.
Treatment of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) with intravenous colistin: A comparision with imipenem-susceptible VAP.
Clin Infect Dis, 36 (2003), pp. 1111-1118
[84.]
J. Baraibar, H. Correa, D. Mariscal, et al.
Risk factors for infection by Acinetobacter baumannii in intubated patients with nosocomial pneumonia.
Chest, 112 (1997), pp. 1050-1054
[85.]
S. Mahgoub, et al.
Underlying characteristics of patients harbouring higly resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
Am J Infect Control, 30 (2002), pp. 386-390
[86.]
Rodriguez-Baño, et al.
Clinical features and epidemiology of Acinetobacter baumannii colonization and infection in Spanish hospitals.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, (2004), pp. 825-831
[87.]
M. Ayan, et al.
Bacteriological, clinical and epidemiological characteristics of hospital-acquired Acinetobacter infection in a teaching hospital.
J Infect, 54 (2003), pp. 39-45
[88.]
D. Villers, E. Espaze, M. Coste-Burel, et al.
Nosocomial Acinetobacter baumannii infections: microbiological and clinical epidemiology.
Ann Intern Med, 129 (1998), pp. 182-189
[89.]
X. Corbella, M. Pujol, J. Ayats, et al.
Relevance of digestive tract colonization in the epidemiology of nosocomial infections due to multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
Clin Infect Dis, 23 (1996), pp. 329-334
[90.]
O. Lortholary, J.-Y. Fagon, A.B. Hoi, et al.
Nosocomial acquisition of multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii: risk factors and prognosis.
Clin Infect Dis, 20 (1995), pp. 790-796
[91.]
O.C. Tablan, et al.
Guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated pneumonia: recomendations of the CDC and the Health-care Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.
MMWR Recomm Rep, 53 (2004), pp. 1-36
[92.]
M. Ebiary, X. Sarmiento, A. Torres, S. Nogue, E. Mesalles, M. Bodi, J. Almirall.
Prognostic factors of severe Legionella pneumonia requiring admission to ICU.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156 (1997), pp. 1467-1472
[93.]
Tkatch, Ls, S. Kusne, I. WD, et al.
Epidemiology of legionella pneumonia and factors associated with legionella-related mortality at a terciary care center.
Clin Infect Dis, 27 (1998), pp. 1479-1486
[94.]
J. Carratala, F. Gudiol, R. Pallares, et al.
Risk factors for nosocomial Legionella pneumophila pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 149 (1994), pp. 625-629
[95.]
N.M. Le Saux, L. Sekla, J. McLeod, S. Parker, D. Rush, J.R. Jeffery, R.C. Brunham.
Epidemic of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease in renal transplant recipients: a case-control and environmental study.
Can Med Assoc J, 140 (1989), pp. 1047-1053
[96.]
V.L. Yu, et al.
Legionnaires disease: new clinical perspective from a prospective pneumonia study.
Am J Med, 73 (1982), pp. 357-361
[97.]
J. Stout, V.L. Yu, R.M. Vickers, J. Shonnard.
Potable water supply as the hospital reservoir for Pittsburgh pneumonia agent.
Lancet, 1 (1982), pp. 471-472
[98.]
M. Sabria, M. Campins.
Legionnaire’disease: update on epidemiology and management options.
Am J Respir Med, 2 (2003), pp. 235-243
[99.]
G.A. Ortolano, M.B. Mc Alister, J.A. Angelbeck, et al.
Hospital water point-of-use filtration: A complementary strategy to reduce the risk of nosocomial infection.
Am J Infect Control, 33 (2005), pp. S1-S19
[100.]
R.A. Venezia, M.D. Agresta, E.M. Hanley, K. Urquhart, D. Schoonmaker.
Nosocomial legionellosis associated with aspiration of nasogastric feedings diluted in tap water.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 15 (1994), pp. 529-533
[101.]
J. Darelid, S. Lofgren, B.E. Malmvall.
Control of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease by keeping the circulating hot water temperature above 55 degrees C: experience from a 10-year surveillance programme in a district general hospital.
J Hosp Infect, 50 (2002), pp. 213-219
[102.]
M. Hilf, V.L. Yu, J. Sharp, et al.
Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients.
Am J Med, 87 (1989), pp. 540-546
[103.]
J.A. Korvick, C.S. Bryan, B. Farber, et al.
Prospective observational study of Klebsiella bacteremia in 230 patients: outcome for antibiotic combinations versus monotherapy.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36 (1992), pp. 2639-2644
[104.]
A. Sandiumengue, E. Diaz, M. Bodi, J. Rello.
Therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia- A patient-based approach based on the ten rules of “The Tarragona Strategy”.
Intensive Care Med., 29 (2003), pp. 876-883
[105.]
R.G. Wunderink, J. Rello, S.K. Cammarata, R.V. Croos-Dabrera, M. Kollef.
Linezolid vs vancomycin: analysis of two double-blind studies of patients with methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia.
Chest, 124 (2003), pp. 1789-1797
[106.]
C.M. Lee, H.K. Lin, C.P. Liu, et al.
Treatment of pandrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
Scand J Infect Dis, 37 (2005), pp. 195-199
[107.]
P.K. Linden, D.L. Paterson.
Parenteral and inhaled colistin fortreatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Clin Infect Dis, 43 (2006), pp. S89-S94
[108.]
A. Montero, Ariza, X. Corballa, et al.
Antibiotic combinations for serious infections caused by carbapenemresistant Acinetobacter baumannii in a mouse pneumonia model.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 54 (2004), pp. 1085-1091
[109.]
J.M. Cisneros-Herreros, J. Garnacho-Montero.
Pachon-Ibanez ME.nosocomial pneumonia due to Acinetobacter baumannii.
Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin, 23 (2005), pp. 46-51
[110.]
A. Michalopoulos, S.K. Kasiakou, Z. Mastora, et al.
Colistin for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in patients without cystic fibrosis.
Crit Care, 9 (2005), pp. R53-R59
[111.]
J.J. Rahal.
Novel antibiotic combinations against infections with almost completely resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter Species.
Clin Infect Dis, 43 (2006), pp. S95-S99
[112.]
M.E. Falagas, S.K. Kasiakou, S. Tsiodras, et al.
The use of intravenous and aerosolized polymyxins for the treatment of infections in critically ill patients: a review of the recent literature.
Clin Med Res, 4 (2006), pp. 138-146
[113.]
Pedro-Botet ML, Yu V. Tratment and prevention of Legionella infection. UpToDate®. (Accessed April 23, 2006, at http://patients.uptodate.com/print.asp?print=true&file=pulm_inf/6738)
[114.]
E.N. Vergis, A. Indorf, T. File, et al.
Azithromycin vs cefuroxime plus erythromycin for empirical treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients: a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 1294-1300
[115.]
R.M. Blazquez Garrido, F.J. Espinosa Parra, L. Frances, et al.
Antimicrobial chemotherapy for legionnaires disease: levofloxacin versus macrolides.
Clin Infect Dis, 40 (2005), pp. 800-806
[116.]
D. Gruson, G. Hilbert, F. Vargas, R. Valentino, C. Bebear, A. Allery, C. Bebear, G. Gbikpi-Benissan, J.P. Cardinaud.
Rotation and restricted use of antibiotics in a medical intensive care unit: impact on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by antibiotic resistant gram-negative bacteria.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 162 (2000), pp. 837-843
[117.]
M. Ferrer, M. Ioanas, A. Torres.
Evaluation of nonresponding patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine., pp. 365-375
[118.]
S. Lowenkron, A. Fein.
The 10 most common questions about non-resolving pneumonia.
Clin Pulm Med, 2 (1995), pp. 8897
[119.]
T. Kuru, J.P. Lynch 3rd.
Nonresolving or slowly resolving pneumonia.
Clin Chest Med, 20 (1999), pp. 623-651
[120.]
L. Rome, G. Murali, M. Lippmann.
Nonresolving pneumonia and mimics of pneumonia.
Med Clin North Am, 85 (2001), pp. 1511-1530
[121.]
J. Rello, D. Mariscal, F. March, et al.
Recurrent Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia in ventilated patients: relapse or reinfection?.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 157 (1998), pp. 912-916
[122.]
D.R. Silver, I.L. Cohen, P.F. Weinberg.
Recurrent Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia in an intensive care unit.
Chest, 101 (1992), pp. 194-198
[123.]
S. Crouch Brewer, R.G. Wunderink, C.B. Jones, et al.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Chest, 109 (1996), pp. 1019-1029
[124.]
S. Rowe, W.G. Cheadle.
Complications of nosocomial pneumonia in the surgical patient.
Am J Surg, 179 (2000), pp. 63-68
[125.]
D. Craven.
Preventing ventilator –associated pneumonia in adults.
[126.]
D.M. Berwick, D.R. Calkins, McCamnon, et al.
The 100. 000 Lives Campaign: setting a goal and a deadline for improving health care quality.
JAMA, 295 (2006), pp. 324-327
[127.]
G. van den Berghe, P. Wouters, F. Weekers, et al.
Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients.
N Engl J Med, 345 (2001), pp. 1359-1367

Sociedade Portuguesa de Pneumologia e Sociedade Portuguesa de Cuidados Intensivos / Portuguese Society of Pulmonology and Intensive Care Society

O presente documento é simultaneamente publicado na Revista Portuguesa de Medicina Intensiva (2007; 14(1):7-30) / This work is published simultaneously in the Portuguese Journal of Intensive Care Medicine (2007; 14(1):7-30)

Copyright © 2007. Sociedade Portuguesa de Pneumologia
Download PDF
Pulmonology
Article options
Tools

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?